Hindu Culture (Music) -3

Hindu  Culture – Music

PENA

The Pena (a.k.a Bana, Bena, or Tingtelia) is a bowed lute found in North East India and Bangladesh. It is used in folk music as well as the accompaniment of the Manipuri dance styles. It is part of a culture of bowed instruments which extends throughout north India. As such, the pena is remarkably similar to the ravanhasta found in Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan, and the ubo found in Manipur and Nagaland, or the kenda found among the Munda (Mundari) of Northern India and Bangladesh.

The subject of terminology is always problematic when dealing with Indian music. In this page, some terms will be from Manipuri while others may reflect a rustic Bengali dialect. However, we cannot even begin to fathom the various alternative terminology that may be found in the different tribal communities of North East India and Bangladesh. These considerations should be kept in mind.

There is a considerable variation in the name of this instrument. In Manipur, it is usually known as pena, but the Nagas often refer to this as tingtalia. In Bangladesh it is known as bana or bena. It is possible that this instrument may be linked to the pinaki vina, mentioned in numerous ancient texts. However, there is the strong likelihood that bana or bena is merely a corruption of the Bengali term bina, which in turn is a corruption of the Sanskrit word vina. The names of this instrument imply a certain generic quality; this is indicated by the fact that the be-ana of West Bengal is of a different construction, yet still played with a bow.

The social significance of this instrument is varied. In Manipur, the pena has a rich tradition. At one time, this instrument was played in royal courts and was considered part of the "high culture" of the region. Today, it is usually associated with folk music and the traditional Manipuri dance. It is still occasionally used for funerals and weddings. The bana of Bangladesh is used in folk music, and is found in folk theatre.

The instrument consists of two basic parts. There is the body of the instrument and there is the bow. The body of the instrument is known as penamasa in Manipur, or dhorr in Bangladesh. The bow has different names. In Manipur it is known as "pena cheijing", while in Bangladesh it is known as chorr.

The main body of the instrument is made by taking a length of bamboo and passing it through a half coconut shell. This forms the neck of the instrument; it is sometimes referred to in Bangladesh as the noli. This bamboo is roughly 10-11 inches in length and roughly 1 to 1.25 inches in diameter. It it is trimmed at the base and then passes through two holes cut in the half coconut shell. Aside from the holes in which the bamboo passes there are two holes for acoustical purposes. The largest opening is covered with some type of skin or membrane. There is also a smaller sound hole cut into the back; this smaller sound hole remains open.

There is a decorative scroll attached to the end of the instrument. In Bangladesh, this is known as mogra.

There is also a tuning peg used to control the tension on the string. This is fitted into two holes made in the side of the bamboo neck. In Bangladesh, this pegs is known as kaan; it too is made from bamboo.

There are a number of different materials which may be used for the membrane. In Bangladesh the skin of an iguana is used; it is said that this iguana skin is only available in the rainy season. In other areas peritonaeum, rawide from other animals, or other membranes may be used.

The bow is made of wood. Sometimes there is a curved piece of metal at the end. In some places, this bow has has numerous small metal bells attached to it (see ghungharu). Horse hair is then strung between the wood and the metal.

Several materials may be used for the string. Although metal strings are occasionally used, it is more likely to be some indigenously available material. Such materials may be horse's hair, or the fibre from a sago-like plant which grows in the region.

It is interesting to note that the number of performers of this instrument have been declining. As rural culture has come under assault by the larger urban cultures, many traditional art forms are disappearing. It is estimated that in Manipur there are only about 145 pena musicians. In many other part of India and Bangladesh the situation is worse.

RAVANHASTA

The ravanhasta is a folk fiddle found in various parts of India.  However it is especially popular in Rajasthan.  There are a number of variations upon the name.  The ravanhasta is variously referred to as ravanahastra, rawanastum, Ravanhattaor ravanastron, it is also called (incorrectly) sarangi or saringda.

Although the basic form of the spiked fiddle is found in many parts of South Asia, this particualr from is most associated with the culture of Rajasthan.  In particular it is the Nayak tribe which is most known for their use and mastery of this instrument.  This instrument is used as the folk musicians sing songs about Pabuji, Bhartari, Jawarji, and Doongji.

It is of a very simple construction.  One starts by taking a half coconut shell and covering it with a membrane; this forms the resonator.  This resonator is penetrated by a length of bamboo; this forms the neck of the instrument.  This length of bamboo has a number of tuning pegs attached to it.  The strings attach directly to these tuning pegs and then pass over a bridge which rests on the taught membrane of the resonator.  Finally these strings terminate at the other end.  The ravanhasta is then played with a bow of horsehair

SARANGI

Sarangi is a common representative of vitat class of musical instruments. It has three to four main playing strings and a number of sympathetic strings. The instrument has no frets or fingerboard; the strings float in the air. Pitch is determined by sliding the fingernail against the string rather than pressing it against a fingerboard (like violin). This instrument is extremely difficult to play, as a consequence its popularity is on the decline. This instrument has traditionally been associated with the kathak dance and the vocal styles of thumri, dadra and kheyal. It was also greatly associated with an Indian version of the geisha tradition, known as the tawaif.
Definition

The origin of the term "sarangi" is not exactly clear. The most quoted etymology of the word says that means "a hundred (sau) colours (rang)". The reference to the multiplicity of colours is often said to refer to the richness of the sound of the instrument. However it should be mentioned that this etymology is not universally accepted. Some suggest that it is derived from the Sanskrit word "Sarang" which is a spotted deer; this last etymology seems somewhat doubtful. All of this may be interesting, but what about the instrument itself?

The exact definition of the term "Sarangi", is somewhat flexible. In its most general form, it refers to any unfretted, bowed Indian instrument, which has a bridge resting on skin or some other membrane. This term may be acceptable to the lay public, but for practising musicians as well as scholars, this term is unacceptably broad. The general use of the term encompass instruments such as the saringda, chikara, and the kamancha. For these web pages, we will use a more restrictive definition of the term. Therefore in these pages, we will be referring to the more boxlike members of this class, while the other members will be discussed in their respective pages.

SARINGDA

Saringda is a bowed folk fiddle of the sarangi class. It is found in Northern India, Pakistan, and Nepal. There is actually no consensus as to whether this instrument deserves to be considered a separate instrument, or just another variation upon the sarangi. For those who are disposed to consider saringda to be a separate instrument, it is differentiated from the sarangi by its shape. The base of the saringda is rounded or pointed where the base of the sarangi is square. Furthermore, the neck has a different shape.

The size is highly variable. One to two feet in length is normal. One occasionally finds them larger than two feet, but as a matter of classification, such larger versions are generally referred to as "sarang" instead of "saringda" or "sarangi". There is really no agreement as to exactly what size constitutes a sarang, there is only agreement that the sarang is larger.

The left hand technique for the saringda does not vary appreciably from the sarangi. As with the sarangi, it would not be fingered by pressing the string against a fingerboard, but would instead be fingered by sliding the nail (or at least what used to be a nail) of the index, middle, and sometimes ring fingers of the left hand against the string.

It is bowed with the right hand. The holding of the bow varies slightly from person to person, however in every case, it is an underhanded technique (e.g., German bass) rather than overhand (e.g., French).

The bow (known as "Gaz") is highly variable.  In its simplest, it is nothing but a piece of wood which is bent into a bow and strung with horsehair.  Occasionally, it has a more complicated construction based upon a wooden rod with a wooden frog supporting the horsehair.  The frog is then fixed to the body of the by string.  Among folk musicians, small bells (ghunghuru) may either be tied to the bow, or worn around the wrist of the right hand.

The number and function of the strings (known as "Tar") are variable. In its simplest, it has only a single string. However, it usually has three to four strings which may be bowed. Of these, one string is the main string (known as "Baj Tar", while the others function sometimes as a drone, and at other times to extend the range of the instrument into the lower octave. As with the sarangi, there may be sympathetic strings which vibrate without ever being bowed or struck. Since the saringda is generally a much simpler instrument than the classical sarangi, the number and complexity of these sympathetic stings is considerably less.

The Saringda shares one important component with almost all bowed instruments of India. That is the fact that there is thin skin stretched over an opening in the resonator upon which the bridge is placed. This is shown below:

The tuning of the saringda is comparable to the Sarangi. (Go To Sarangi Tuning

TAR SHEHNAI

Tar shehanai is merely a small mechanical amplifier that has been added to an esraj. One may think of the tar shehanai as having the same relationship to the esraj as the dobro guitar has to a standard acoustic guitar. Since the tar shehanai is just a modified esraj there are really no significant differences in technique or tuning. Therefore, one can read about the esraj for more information.
History

The history of the tar shehanai is not completely clear; but from what we do know, it is an interesting story. The story actually begins thousands of miles away in Europe and the United States. Since the third quarter of the 19th century, the introduction of the gramophone saw a need to develop more efficient ways of acoustically coupling the weak mechanical energies from the disks and cylinders to the air in the form of sound. During the later part of the 19th century and well into the 20th century, such efforts begin to bear fruit in the form of extremely efficient gramophone sound boxes.

Around the turn of the 20th century, a few instrument makers began to realise that many of the same requirements of the gramophone also applied to musical instruments. Therefore, numerous instrument makers around Europe and the US almost simultaneously began to experiment with the use of gramophone sound boxes as a replacement for the more traditional wooden sound boxes that we have come to associate with guitars, violins, and other stringed instruments.

There were a number of instruments that were based upon this approach. Today the Stroh violin is still in production. The Dobro guitar's "pan" also evolved from technologies that were developed for the gramophone. One of the most significant for the development of the tar shehnai, was an instrument that was known as the "Japanese fiddle".

These musical experiments we not done merely in the name of innovation; they were spurred by very real musical and commercial needs. The rapidly developing recording industry was having a very difficult time recording stringed instruments. Although some instruments such as the saxophone had a strong sound that was highly directional and could be easily recorded, most of the stringed instruments had sounds that were weak, diffuse, and non-directional. The gramophone-soundbox instruments overcame these problems and were easy to record.

These new instruments proved popular on stage as well. We must not forget that this was an age before the introduction of electronic sound amplification. The greater volume of these instruments proved to be a boon for soloists and small groups.

The movement of these instruments into India is not completely clear. It appears that in the very early days of the 20th century, these instruments found their way into south Asia. India too had a fledgling recording industry. India's recording industry had the same technological challenges that other countries faced. It appears that the Japanese fiddle addressed these challenges in India just as it had in the West.

I am told that in the early days of the 20th century, there was a relatively common indigenous or "desi" version of the Japanese fiddle. This was a staff, usually of bamboo, that had a single string mounted to it. It was tightened by way of a peg. The string at the lower end was attached to a gramophone sound box.

The "desi" version of the Japanese fiddle came to be known as the "tar shehanai". The term tar shehnai, literally means a "stringed shehanai". This is an obvious reference to both the shehnai-like sound of the Japanese fiddle, and the string which is used as its sound producer.

This brings us to the next phase of evolution. These bamboo tar shehnais, may have been accessible, but they were really very crude. Someone, somewhere, got the idea of attaching the gramophone sound box to an existing esraj. When this was done the tar shehnai truly came of age.

The tar shehnai had a great popularity in the early days of the film industry. Even with the introduction of vacuum tube (valve) based electronic recording, the tar shehanai proved very easy to work with in the studio. Furthermore, the very piercing sound quality of the tar shehnai gave a certain "punch" to the musical interludes in film songs. Therefore it should be no surprise that the tar shehnai continued to be popular in film songs until about the early 1960's. This was many decades after the introduction of the vacuum tube removed the tar shehnai's very raison de etre.

This instrument fell into several decades of obscurity. There were many reasons for its decline. Certainly changing musical tastes were a big reason, but there was a more practical one. Gramophone sound box production essentially came to a halt. Without a reliable source of soundboxes, the manufacture of tar shehnais could not be continued.

The last decade has seen a resurgence in interest in the tar shehnai. There are two reasons for this. Undoubtedly the greatest motivation is the growing Gurmat Sangeet movement among the Sikh community. This has turned people's attention to instruments that in some cases have not been popular for centuries. Although the tar shehanai was certainly not extant at the time of Guru Gobinda, the basic resurgence in traditionalism has brought the tar shehnai back to people's attention, thus saving it from extinction.

Another reason why the tar shehanai has resurged is due to the changing nature of world economies. One factor was the collapse of the Soviet Union. Gramophone sound box manufacture apparently has been continuing in some parts of Eastern Europe throughout the 20th century. The opening up of these markets, coupled with the massive reduction in India's own trade barriers in the 1980's and 1990's, has created a reliable source of soundboxes for Indian craftsmen.

So this is where the tar shehanai stands today. It is unlikely that it will ever replace the electronic keyboard or the electric guitar in popularity, but at least for the next few decades, it does not look like it will become extinct.

VIOLIN

Although the violin is not native to the Indian subcontinent; it has become so popular that it must be mentioned. There appears to be no difference in construction between the Indian violin and its Western counterpart, however the technique is quite different. The most refined technique is to be found in South Indian music. Instead of holding the instrument under the chin, the musician props it between the shoulder and the foot. This gives a stability which cannot be matched by either north Indian nor occidental techniques. North Indian technique, though not nearly as refined, is still impressive.

Membranous Percussive (Avanaddh)

  This is a class of instruments which have struck membranes. These typically comprise the drums.

CHARCHARI

The Charchari is a folk drum found among the Santhal, and Munda peoples of North East India.

CHENDA

Chenda is a drum from the South Indian state of Kerala and parts of Karnataka. It is an indispensable accompaniment for the Kathakali dance form. The Karnataka version, known as chende, is also used in the dance drama known as Yaksha Gana. It has heads on both ends but only one side is played.

DAF

Daf is a tambourine. It is quite large, about two feet across, with a conspicuous absence of jingles. It is commonly used in folk music but is rarely heard in other styles. It is also called dapphu, daffali, or a number of other names. It is related to the kanjira of South Indian music.

DAMARU

Damaru is the most common hour-glass drum in India. It has a resonator which is anywhere from 4-10 inches in length and 3-8 inches in diameter. The resonator is usually either metal or wood. There are two drumheads on each side of the resonator which are laced together with cord. Near the centre of the lacing are two loose knoted cords. The knots on each end strike both heads to produce a rattling sound. This is affected by rotating the drum rapidly in alternating directions. The pitch is bent by squeezing the lacing.

The damaru has very strong cultural associations. It is strongly associated with the God Shiva and sadhus (wandering Hindu religious men).

The damaru appears to be the most common representative of a family of hour-glass drums. Although other representatives (e.g., udaku, hurduk, idakka, etc) may be found, they are very rare. This is in stark contrast to the abundance of forms that are found carved on temple walls.

The damaru is virtually identical to the dhad. This is played with the hands instead of knotted chords. The dhad is very popular in the Sikh bardic tradition.

DHAD

Dhad is an instrument very similar to the damaru. Structurally it is so close to the damaru that perhaps it is not correct to call it a different instrument. Where the damaru has two knotted chords, dhad does not. Although the structural differences between the dhad and the damaru are insignificant, the techniques of playing, the social significance, and the musical capabilities are very different.

From a technical standpoint, the dhad is played with the hands, while the damaru is played by quickly rotating the drum in such a way that the knotted chords strike the heads. As such, it may be considered to be more of a noisemaker than a serious musical instrument. However the dhad is played with the hands; this gives a much more precise control over the rhythm. This elevates the dhad to the status of a true musical instrument.

In both the dhad as well as the damaru, the pitch of the drum is altered. For the damaru it is raised by tightening the rope that wraps around the waist; while for the dhad, it is raised by tightening a small cloth band wrapped around the waist of the drum.

Perhaps the greatest difference between the instruments is in the social significance. Where the damaru often has a secular connotation (e.g., beggars with trained monkeys), it is also much associated with the Shivite tradition. The damaru is as iconic among the Shivite sadhus as their trident and their matted hair bun. The dhad on the other hand, is greatly associated with the Sikh bardic tradition. Minstrels known as "dhadis" play the dhad while singing songs and telling stories of the deeds of the Sikh gurus and stories of Sikh history.

Dhak (a.k.a. Daklu)

The Dhak also known as a Daklu is a folk drum found among the Rathwa people of Gujarat

DHOL

Dhol is a very popular folk drum of northern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. It is a barrel shaped, sometimes cylindrical drum, with skins on both sides. It has one side which has a high pitch and another side which has a lower pitch. It is very popular in folk music. The dhol is essentially nothing more than a larger version of the dholak.

The term "dhol" has a generic quality about it. Virtually any large barrel shaped or cylindrical drum may be called a dhol. Therefore, whenever one wishes to be more specific one generally attaches a descriptive term to make things clear (e.g., "bhangra dhol").

The history of the dhol is not clear. One source of confusion may be that the origin of the term "dhol" may be different from the origin of the instrument itself. The word "dhol" is probably of Persian origin. It is probably derived from the Persian "dohol" or "duhul". However images of dhol players appear to be present in the bas relief carvings on Indian temple walls from the earliest times. It is possible that both the instrument as well as the name have some deep Indo-European connection. However, at this point it is just really difficult to make any firm statement as to the origin of the instrument.

As one moves around North India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, one finds considerable variation in the technique. One finds the use of hands, sticks, and various combinations of both. The most well known style is the bhangra style which uses sticks on both sides. There is also variation as to whether the low pitched side should be played on the left side or the right side. Throughout most of South Asia, it is more common to play the lower pitched side with the left hand.
Construction

The construction of the dhol is a very interesting affair. Naturally there are regional differences. Even within one region, there are differences from one maker to the next. However, we can discuss a number of general aspects concerning the making of the dhol.

One of the most important parts of the dhol is the shell. There are regional variations as to both the size, dimensions, and the woods used. It will generally be cylindrical or barrel shaped. The most commonly used woods are Mango wood and Shisham

Mango-wood (genus - mangifera)is commonly used for the drum shell. There are advantages and disadvantages to this wood. On the positive side, mango wood (a.k.a. "aam") is extremely light; this is a very important consideration for a drum as large as the dhol, because the majority of the weight of the instrument is made up of this shell. Another advantage is that mango trees are readily available. However, mango wood is not without its disadvantages. Mango wood is general considered to have a sound which is much thinner than other heavier woods. Undoubtedly the biggest disadvantage of mango wood is its susceptibility to insect infestation (i.e., the "false powder-post beetle" - Xylopsocus capucinus ). However, this problem is often addressed by liberal applications of an infusion made from the "Neem" tree; this is a well known natural insecticide

Shisham (genus - dalbergia) is another wood which is commonly used to make dhols, this too has advantages and disadvantages. One advantage of shisham is its superior sound quality. It also has the advantage of being very resistant to insects. Unfortunately shisham is a very hard wood, so it is difficult to cut and work with. Furthermore it is extremely heavy, so instruments made of shisham are difficult to carry and even more difficult to dance with.

One may find a variety of skins and membranes used to skin the drum. The most common is goatskin, but the past few decades have seen a rising popularity of artificial materials. Generally a thicker skin is used on one side, this thicker skin is then sometimes loaded with a small amount of a pitch-like application known as "dholak massala". The combination of the thicker skin and the acoustic loading of the application gives this side a deeper sound. On extremely rare occasions one may find an application to the thinner, high pitched head.

There are several ways of tightening the dhol. Sometimes they are laced with rope, or rawhide, in which case, a series of metal rings are often used to pull and tighten the instrument. Sometimes metal turnbuckles are employed.

The dhol in Punjab plays a very important part in the local culture.  It has emerged as an instrument that Punjabis use as a symbol of their ethnic identity.  This strong attachment is especially evident among the expatriate Punjabi communities dispersed across the earth.

The use of the dhol is varied in the Punjab.  Its use is not limited to artistic events, because it is found at political rallies, sporting events, and virtually any place that one wishes to create a festive mood.
The Punjabi dhol is also known as the "bhangra dhol"; this is due to its importance in the folk dance/ song style known as bhangra.  Since the bhangra has attained a worldwide audience, this version of the dhol is probably the most well known example.
The orientation of the Punjabi dhol is fairly standard.  The deep side is generally played with the left hand while the treble side is generally played with the right hand.  Of course, this may be reversed for left-handed performers
The Punjabi dhol tends to be played with sticks on both sides.  However the sticks are different.  There is a curved drumstick known as the dagga, and a straight drumstick known as the chanti.  The chanti (straight drumstick) is used upon the high pitched side which is referred to as the "madeen".  This drumstick is generally made of a light material such as cane.  The curved one (dagga) is used on the deep pitched side side (nar); this drumstick is made of a heavier wood.
The construction of the dhol in Punjab is not significantly different from what it is in other parts of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.  There are but a few small exceptions.  Most of the differences are merely one of nomenclature.  Let us now look more closely at these small Punjabi characteristics.
There is a tendency for the Punjabi dhol to be a bit smaller and a bit lighter than elsewhere in the subcontinent.  Many times it is barely larger than the dholak.  The heads on the Punjabi dhol tend to be around 13 inches, while the shell balloons out to a diameter of around 15 inches.  This small size reflects the tendency for Punjabis to dance and run around with the dhol during a performance.
As in other parts of India, there are a variety of tightening arrangements.  There are rawhide lacings, rope, and, screw turnbuckle systems.  One curiously Punjabi innovation is a hybrid where one finds turnbuckles (screws) on one side and rope lacing on the other.
The wood that one generally finds on the Punjabi dhol is either mango (aam) or shisham.  In Punjab, shisham is known as "taahlli".  However since a light portable dhol is more important to Punjabis, the heavy weight of shisham is a disadvantage.
The heads have traditionally been of goat skin, but as the Punjabi dhol has risen in international popularity, one is finding plastic and other artificial materials being used.
There is one decorative aspect of the Punjabi dhol which deserves attention.  Tassels are an obligatory addition to the Punjabi dhol.  These are usually attached to the tightening rings.
Traditionally, dhol players occupied a lower strata of society; this however is changing.  The urbanisation and internationalisation of bhangra is reflected in the fact that dhol players may now come from any strata of society.  Even women are now taking up the dhol.

The kanthi dhol, sometimes pronounced kathi dhol, or even "bangla dhol", is a commonly used drum found in Bangladesh, West Bengal, and parts of North-East India. The word "kanthi", is linked to the term "kath" or "kashth", which means "wooden". The term is in reference to the wooden drum-stick (i.e., the kanthi) used to play the drum. This is to distinguish it from the hand drums (e.g., khol, dholak, maddala, etc.) which are also found in the area.

The Bengali kanthi dhol is commonly used on many occasions. It is used to accompany a variety of folk music and dance, such as Bengali folksongs (vaoaiya/chotka 'ashor'), and the "lathi" (bamboo) dance. It is also used to provide an environment for non-musical events such as the annual procession of Muharrom, boat races, marriages, and a variety of festive occasions.

In Bengal, the person who plays dhol is called a "dhuli". They allow their hair to grow very long. This long hair is used to great artistic effect by shaking it from side to side as they play the dhol.

The technique of the dhol utilises both hands. In the right hand a kanthi or small bamboo or cane stick is used as a drum-stick. The left side is generally played with the fingers. However, drum-sticks are sometimes used to play both sides of the dhol. Some performers use two metal coverings for the index and middle fingers. They place these rings over the finger tips, to produce a sharper sound than would otherwise be obtained.

The making of the Bengali kanthi dhol is a highly developed art. Here are some important points.

The drumshell is an extremely important part of the dhol. This shell is known as the dhor. It generally starts with a cylindrical or barrel shaped piece of wood. The following dimensions are generally used for the Bengali kanthi dhol. It is generally two feet long. Circumference in the middle of the dhor (shell) is about three feet. Both ends have circumferences which are considerably less.

Goat hide is used to cover both openings (chauni). These skins are wrapped over bamboo rings (gojra/chak) and then fitted over the shell (dhor) by rawhide lacing, string, or rope. This lacing often passes through metal rings to facilitate tuning. The hides are not the same thickness. The left hand skin is thicker than that of right hand side. This thicker left hand skin, when combined with the pitch-like application on the inner surface, gives the left side a substantially deeper sound.

There are a few accessories to the Bengali kanthi dhol. One of these is a cloth which wraps around the drum; this is primarily decorative. This cloth is known as "Gamcha". There is also a strap which allows the dhuli to hang the dhol around their neck, thus allowing the performer to walk and play at the same time.
The Dhol in Other Areas

There is a presence of the dhol throughout Northern India, Pakistan, and even into the Middle East. Some discussion of the dhol in these other parts is in order.

Gujarat - The dhol has a significant presence in the North Western state of Gujarat. However unlike the situation in the Punjab where the dhol is directly identifiable with Punjabi culture, the situation in Gujarat is more indirect. It is the dance forms raas and garba which are inextricably linked to the Gujarati sense of self identity, but the dhol is an important accompaniment to this dance. However unlike the situation in Punjab, the veneration afforded to the raas, and garba does not rub off on the dhol. Compared to the situation in the Punjab, the dhol is greatly taken for granted.

South India - The dhol has a very limited presence in Southern India. This is because the social and musical role that it plays in the North is solidly occupied by other instruments; the most notable is the tavil. Where weddings, processions, and other festive events in the north would find the presence of the dhol an indispensable component, in the south one finds the presence of the tavil.

It is arguable that the tavil is nothing but a south Indian version of the dhol. One could point to the myriad similarities of technique, cultural significance, and structure of the instrument to make this statement. Unfortunately this comes down to a "glass half full, or half empty" situation, because one could just as easily point to the differences to argue that there is no connection between the two instruments. We can only bring this up as an idea for consideration without making any judgement.

Tribal India - The dhol is well represent in the music of the Indian tribals. There are so many variations in technique and construction that entire books could be written on the subject. Unfortunately there is no single culture or single entity that can be defined as tribal India, for it is a collection of largely unrelated smaller cultures. Therefore, it is pointless to try and make any definitive statements about the use of the dhol in tribal societies. The most that we can say is that it is fairly common.

Pakistan - The situation in Pakistan is a complex one.  There is a curious mixture of acceptance and rejection of the dhol, the dholis, as well as music in general.

There are some positive aspects.  Some have suggested that the dhol is of Persian import, and the area of present day Pakistan may be one of the first areas of South Asia to adopt this instrument.  The dhol, is often used by Sufis and is commonly found at qawwali performances at dargas (burial shrines to Muslim saints) and other pilgrimage places.
But all is not well in this regard.  The performers of the dhol have long occupied a lower position in Pakistani society.  For as long as anyone can remember, musicians have been marginalised in this region; but the situation is getting worse.  The rise of Wahhabi influenced fundamentalism is putting Sufism, music, and musicians on the defensive.

Other Countries - The dhol is present throughout the Middle East and Eastern Europe.  It is only natural that as we move through such a diverse linguistic area that there will emerge major changes in pronunciation and nomenclature.  For instance in Afghanistan and Persia, the dhol is referred to to as "duhul", or "dohol".  The construction also begins to change.  It begins to change its form and morph into the "tabl-baladi" of Egypt, or the medieval tabor found in Europe.  All of these are interesting, but it becomes clear that we are geographically, culturally, and historically at the very boundaries of the dhol

Dholak 

Dholak is a very popular folk drum of northern India. It is barrel shaped with a simple membrane on the right hand side; basically it is just a smaller version of the dhol. The lefthand is also a single membrane with a special application on the inner surface. This application is a mixture of tar, clay and sand (dholak masala) which lowers the pitch and provides a well defined tone. There are two ways of tightening the dholak. Sometimes they are laced with rope, in which case, a series of metal rings are pulled to tighten the instrument. Sometimes metal turnbuckles are employed. It is said that this instrument used to occupy a position of considerable prestige. Today it is merely relegated to filmi and folk music.

DIGGI

The diggi is a folk drum of the Gharia people of Uttar Pradesh.

IDAKKA AND UDAKU

Idakka and udaku (udakai) are hour-glass drums from south India. They are very similar to the damaru which is found throughout India. Where the damaru is played by rattlingknotted cords against the resonators, the idakka is played with a stick and the udaku is played with the hand. The udaku is structurally different in that it has a small snare made of hair, fishing line or similar material stretched over one side. Like the damaru both the udaku and the idakka's pitch may be bent by squeezing the lacing in the middle.

GOGA DHOL

The goga dhol is a folk drum of found amoung the Muria people of Madhya Pradesh

GUMMETA (a.k.a. Dakki, Budike)

Gummeta (a.k.a. dakki, budike), is drum used in the folk music of Andhra Pradesh. It is an important musical accompaniment in the in the bura katha folk song / folk story telling tradition.

It is of the same class of instruments as the tumbak of Kashmir or the middle eastern dumbek, or darbuka. However it is not at all clear whether there was some evolutionary link, or whether it represents and independent development.

It is hung around the neck and played with both hands. It is typically struck with the right hand while the left hand alternately opens and closes the the opening at the small side. Occasionally both hands will be used to play the playing surface.

JASPURIA

The jaspuria is a folk drum found amoung the Santhal people of North East India and Bangladesh.

JHORKA & KORKA

Jhorka and Korka are two folk drums found in the music of Northern Bangladesh. Although the two are nearly identical, the jhorka is a snare drum while the korka is a tom.

This drum is very popular in the folk music of northern Bangladesh. It is commonly used in the vaoiaya (bhawaia) style of folk music, and is an absolute must for the lathi khela and the lathi naach. It is generally used to accompany the dhol.

These drums are played with two sticks made of strips of bamboo. It is slung around the neck while being played.

The drum has an interesting construction.  It is a two sided drum similar to a snare drum or a tom, with the exception that both sides are greatly dissimilar in size.  The larger face of the drum is roughly 36-38 cm (approx 15 inches); this is the playing side.  The smaller end is only about 29-30cm (approx 11 inches); this side is not struck.  The drum skins are generally cow hide or goat skin.  The body of the drum is generally made of mango wood; mango wood is known for its light weight, and easy of working.  Lacing of the drum is generally accomplished using jute rope and rawhide.

The distinction between the jhorka and the korka is to be found on the smaller head of the drum.  The jhorka has a snare at the bottom of it; this is generally made by stringing three pieces of string across the surface of the drum.  The korka on the other hand, has a simple head without a snare.  Although the other aspects of construction may be identical, the presence or absence of the snare makes a big difference in the tone of the instrument

KANJIRA

The kanjira is a small tambourine. It is made by stretching lizard skin over a wooden frame. The frame is about seven inches in diameter with one metal jingle mounted in it. The kanjira is very popular in South Indian classical performances. It is related to the daf of folk music.

KHOL

Khol also called mridang, is a folk drum of northeast India. It has a body made of clay, a very small head on the right side (approximately 4 inches), and a larger head on the left side (approximately 10 inches). A fiberglass version of the khol has become popular in the West among the members of ISKCON. It is very popular in the kirtans of Bengal, but it is also found throughout the northeast including Bangladesh

MADAR

 The madar is a class of maddal found among the Baiga tribe in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh

MADDAL

Maddal is a class of barrel shaped hand drums of the mridang class. Where other members of the mridang class tend to be used in classical music, the maddal tends to be  used in folk music.

The construction of the maddal tends to be similar of the pakhawaj. As in the pakhawaj and mridangam, it invariably has a permanent application on the right hand side. However, it is really difficult to generalise about the left side application. Among the folk maddals, one may find permanent applications, dholka massala type applications, or even temporary applications such as flour and water.

One interesting characteristic of the maddal is the variety of sizes and shapes that one may find for the drum shell. Although they tend to be fairly consistent within certain geographical areas and small ethnic groups, when viewed across the breadth of South Asia one finds a very great variation.

It should be stressed that the maddal is not a single instrument but a class of related folk drums. Specific examples include the jaspura (Northeast India), madar (central India), maddale (Southwest India), mandar (Central and Northeast India), and the tumdah (Northeast India). One could even argue that the pung and the khol could also be include in this classification.

MRIDANGAM

Mridangam is a South Indian version of the pakhawaj. It bears a strong superficial resemblance to pakhawaj but there are major differences in construction and technique. The tone of the instrument is quite different. This is due to differences in construction.

The construction of the mridangam is interesting. It has heavy annular membrane around the right side, and a number of pieces of straw which are placed radially between the annular membrane and the main membrane. The right side has a permanent application, known as soru or karanai. The left side uses a mixture of flour and water to provide a proper tone. This application must be removed after each performance. The lacing and heads are all placed upon a barrel shaped wooden shell. The wood is usually of jackwood.

The instrument is usually tuned with a small wooden block and a heavy stone.  The block is placed against the rawhide weaving and struck with the stone.  The manner of striking may either raise or lower the pitch.  It is generally tuned to the tonic of the piece being performed.

The sitting and playing technique is shown below.  One sits cross legged with the left foot below and the right foot over and slightly extended.  The mridangam rests upon the right foot and ankle.  Since the instrument is very heavy it is also cushioned by some rolled up cloth placed at the right foot.  The right hand plays the smaller head, while the left hand plays the head with the temporary application of flour.

The mridangam is an indispensable component of the south Indian classical performance. In these performances, the artist plays very intricate patterns to accompany south Indian vocalists, vina, violin, or gottuvadyam players. It is a very demanding art and requires many years to master.

Nagada

Nagada are the kettle drums of the old naubat (traditional ensemble of nine instruments). These drums are about 1 - 2 feet in diameter, and played with sticks. Today this instrument is usually used to accompany shehnai.

PAKHAWAJ

Pakhawaj is essentially a north Indian version of the mridangam and is the most common north Indian representative of the class of barrel shaped drums known as mridang. It was once common throughout north India, but in the last few generations tabla has usurped its position of importance. It has a right head which is identical to tabla except somewhat larger. The left head is similar to the tabla bayan except that there is a temporary application of flour and water instead of the black permanent spot. It is laced with rawhide and has tuning blocks placed between the straps and shell.

There are several styles of pakhawaj playing. The most well known and important is for the accompaniment of dhrupad and dhammar singers; this however, is falling out of fashion. Pakhawaj is also very much used for Orissi dancers and occasionally for kathak. It is also found in a classical form from Rajasthan known as Haveli Sangeet.

Pakhawaj compositions are passed down from generation to generation. Like the tabla, they are taught by a series of mnemonic syllables known as bol. There are major differences between the tabla bols and the pakhawaj bols. This is often confusing to musicians who wish to play pakhawaj compositions on the tabla.

The playing position is easy. For the right-handed person, the smaller end is placed on the right hand and the larger side is placed on the left side. the right side is usually raised slightly by placing a small rolled up piece of cloth under it. The whole is place in front of the musician as shown in the illustration.

For more information on pakhawaj and tabla concepts check out "Fundamentals of Tabla" and "Advanced Theory of Tabla"

Pancha Mukha Vadhyam (a.k.a. Kudapanchmukhi)

The Panchamukha Vadhyam is an extremely large drum played in temples in India.  It has five playing heads which are tuned to different notes.  This drum is played with the hands.

PHARA

The phara is a folk drum found amoung the Irula people of Kerala

PUNG

Pung is a drum from the north-east Indian state of Manipur. This association is so strong that it has come to be known as the manipuri mridang. It is held in very high esteemand is very much used in the Manipuri style of dance. There is even a whole dance form based upon it known as Pung Chalom.

The pung is very similar to the khol in its construction and technique. There are really only a few differences. The pung has a body made of wood while the khol has a body of clay. Another difference is that both left and right sides of the pung are similar in size while the khol has sides that are very different. Another difference is that the khol has a greater girth while the pung is more cylindrical.

No one knows how long this drum has been in existence. It is said that it was introduced into the area by king Khuyoi Tompok in the year 154 AD.

SAMBAL

The sambal is a folk drum found amoung the Kokna people of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in Western India

SHUDDHA MADALAM (SUDDHA MADDALAM)

Shuddha madalam is a drum from the South Indian state of Kerala. It is an indispensable accompaniment for the Kathakali and Mohini Attam dance forms. It is very similar tothe mridangam.

TABLA

Tabla is a pair of drums. It consists of of a small right hand drum called dayan and a larger metal one called bayan.

The tabla has an interesting construction. The dayan (right hand drum) is almost always made of wood. The diameter at the membrane may run from just under five inches to over six inches. The bayan (left hand drum) may be made of iron, aluminium, copper, steel, or clay; yet brass with a nickel or chrome plate is the most common material. Undoubtedly the most striking characteristic of the tabla is the large black spot on each of the playing surfaces. These black spots are a mixture of gum, soot, and iron filings. Their function is to create the bell-like timbre that is characteristic of the instrument.

Although the origin of tabla is somewhat obscure, it is generally belived that it evolved from the barrel shaped drum called pakhawaj. This was about three hundred years ago.

(Remember to check out "The Tabla Site" for more information.)

TABLA TARANG

Tabla tarang consists of a number of tabla dayans tuned to different notes of the scale. Complete melodies are played by striking the appropriate dayans.

TAMAK

The Tamak is a folk drum found among the Santhals

TASHA (Taasha, Tash)

The tasha is a popular folk instrument of the kettle drum variety. It is characterised by a very shallow metel shell. The lacing is sometimes of rawhide, but in the urban areas, turnbuckle (screw system) tuning is common. It is played with drumsticks. The tasha is very popular in marriage procession bands

TAVIL

Tavil is an instrument found only in the extreme south. It has a shell of nearly spherical proportions which is open on both sides. There are two skins wrapped around two large hemp hoops. The left side is played with a stick. The right side is played with the hands with metal thimbles placed over the fingers to give a sharp sound. This instrument is commonly played in South Indian temples and weddings. It is the most common accompaniment to the nadaswaram

THANTHI PANAI (TANTIPANAI)

Thanthi Panai (tantipanai or tanti panai) is a pot drum used by tribals of southern India. It consists of a clay pot with a skin stretched over it. There is a metal string which attaches to the centre of this skin, then passes through the pot and through a small hole drilled in the bottom. From here the string passes through a series of beads or wooden blocks, then ties to a tuning peg. This tuning peg is used to tune to the tonic. When the instrument is played some small metalic rings which surround the string inside the resonator begin to virate.

The name Thanthi Panai is a reflection of the metal string used in its construction. It is based upon an older instrument that used gut strings. This was known as Narakunda Panai.

TIMKI

The timki is a folk drum of the tasha class found amoung the Gond, Baiga, and Bharia peoples of Madhya Pradesh

TUMBAK

The tumbak is basically an Indian version of the Dumbek. The tumbak is not very common in most of India, but it is found in the folk music of Kashmir. It is interesting to note that drums of this type are also known as klong yao or glong (Thailand & Laos). There is a certain similarity in form to the gummeta of Andhra Pradesh.

URUMILI

The urumili is a folk drum found amoung the Urula people of Kerala in south India.

Electronic

LAHARA PETI

The lahara (lahera) peti, is an Indian electronic instrument which produces simple repetitive melodies as an aid for students. It serves the same function that has historically been performed by artists on the sarangi, harmonium, or other melodic instruments. However the obvious advantage is that the electronic version is there for ones practice at any time.

I am told tha the first electronic lahara peti was made by a P. Mitra, in Karnatica. I know nothing of the man, but I was able to reverse engineer one of his machines back in the mid 1970's. I was an analogue oscillator that was controlled by a simple analogue / digital sequencer. It was crude but serviceable for churning out a Tintal lahara.

Within a few years Radel systems of Bangalore were producing commercial quality lahara petis. These made much more extensive use of improvements in digital electronics, so that numerous laharas in several tals were now practical.

In the last few years, other companies have also started to produce their own lahara petis. One alternative to the Radel is the "Nagma"

TABLA PETI

The tabla peti is an electronic box which automatically generates tabla thekas in various tals at a variety of tempos.  The names for these devices vary tremendously accordingto the manufacturer and model.  Common brands are the Riyaz Master, Taal Tarang, and the Taalmaala by Radel, and the Sur Sangat Professional by Shvimaal Electronics

MRIDANGAM PETI

This is a relative newcomer to the field of Indian electronic instruments. As the name implies, it generates the sound of mridangam accompaniment patterns.

Om Tat Sat

                                                        

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